5. Fifth Lecture: The Source of Beliefs
This is a fairly accessible and self-contained lecture. It delves into the individual's quest for consistency between actions and the psychological perspective on subjectivity. We explore the intrinsic human need to believe in something and how this influences our understanding of ourselves, our behavior, and our interactions with the world. In recent years, I have reserved some time at the end of the lecture for a principal commentary on belief in God — a question I am frequently asked and have discussed extensively with my close ones and students.
What Is a Belief?
To understand the concept of beliefs and believing, we must first contextualize it. What does "belief" mean?
From a scientifically rational standpoint, "belief" refers to the acceptance of a statement or claim as true, often without empirical evidence or the need for verification. In the scientific community, beliefs are open to revision or rejection based on new evidence or theories. At a given moment, however, they serve as a foundation for understanding the status quo.
From a psychological perspective, a "belief" is a cognitive representation of an individual's perception of reality—a mental construct shaped by personal understanding or interpretation of the environment. Beliefs are informed by objective and subjective experiences and influenced by past experiences, culture, background, and reasoning abilities.
The Crucial Function of Beliefs
What role do beliefs play in the psychological functioning of an individual?
Beliefs Conceptualize Reality:
Beliefs allow individuals to conceptualize reality and gain the certainty needed to navigate everyday life. They answer the question, What does this mean to me? in the context of one’s life. By providing a framework for understanding and interpreting events and experiences, beliefs help us make sense of the world and develop a sense of certainty and predictability.
Beliefs Offer Stability and Direction:
Through beliefs, we achieve a sense of stability, security, and continuity. This enables us to feel more in control of our lives. Beliefs shape our expectations and aspirations, guiding our behavior toward achieving those aspirations. In essence, beliefs provide the meaning we inherently seek, allowing us to make informed decisions and take purposeful action.
The Evolutionary Basis of Belief
Our need to make sense of experiences and develop predictability is deeply rooted in evolution. This need has been crucial for survival.
The Consequences of Uncertainty:
When we lack meaning, we experience a range of physical and psychological symptoms, such as muscle tension, increased heart rate, and difficulty concentrating, accompanied by worry, nervousness, and fear. In such a state, it becomes challenging to find our place in the world, set goals, or remain motivated.
Impact on Mental Well-Being:
This absence of meaning often leads to avoidance behaviors and feelings of hopelessness or helplessness, contributing to depressive states. A lack of meaning can profoundly affect mental and emotional well-being, resulting in anxiety, confusion, loss of motivation, and depression.
The Evolutionary Basis of Beliefs
Beliefs as predictors of future certainty have a strong evolutionary foundation. Numerous studies demonstrate that animals also experience negative feelings when they cannot determine the meaning of something—an adaptive feature crucial for survival.
For example, research by Robert J. Blanchard and Martin Kavaliers shows how mice and rats display fear in new environments. Jaak Panksepp demonstrated that rats exhibit fear-related behaviors when exposed to loud noises, sudden movements, or unfamiliar surroundings. Similarly, Tanja Jovanovic found that macaques experience increased heart rates, elevated cortisol levels, and freezing behavior when encountering ambiguous stimuli—standard indicators of fear in primates. Martin-Malivel observed parallel results in rats and primates, both showing heightened freezing behaviors in response to ambiguous stimuli. These reactions are not limited to mammals; they have also been documented in species such as sea slugs, birds, and other animals.
This evidence underscores how deeply embedded the drive for meaning and predictability is in survival mechanisms across species.
The Hermeneutics Trap: When Meaning Becomes a Limitation
While the need to attach meaning to life’s events is adaptive, it can sometimes overshadow our ability to recognize the limits of our understanding. This tendency relates to what Žižek describes as the "hermeneutics trap." Žižek argues that we interpret the world through preconceptions or ideological frameworks that limit objective understanding and reinforce existing beliefs and ideologies. He states, "The trap of ideology lies not in the naive belief in some illusion, but in the acceptance of a certain framework of interpretation, which then generates illusions as its necessary by-product."
Jordan Peterson echoes this sentiment, suggesting that ideologies operate unconsciously, controlling actions without conscious awareness:
"Ideologies are not conscious. They're unconscious. They're simply ways of thinking that people adopt without ever realizing it. They're like the patterns of a dream, but they're not something that you're aware of. They're like a hidden force that's controlling your actions."
This unconscious influence not only shapes actions but also enables individuals to justify their behavior retroactively. Ideology, in this sense, becomes both the lens through which we view the world and the narrative we use to rationalize our decisions.
Belief Systems as Ideological Constructs
The connection between individual belief systems and ideology reveals a critical tension. Many reject the idea that their beliefs are shaped by an overarching ideology, but this denial often blinds individuals to the extent of ideology's influence on their psyche and consciousness.
An ideology, at its core, is a system of beliefs, values, and principles that shapes one’s understanding of the world and their place within it. This influence can be so pervasive that individuals fail to realize how deeply entrenched their belief systems are in cultural, social, or economic ideologies. The question then arises: Are our beliefs truly our own?
Heidegger’s “The They” and Ideology
Heidegger’s concepts of “The One” (das Man) and “The They” illustrate how ideology shapes individuals’ perceptions and actions.
“The One” refers to the individual’s tendency to conform to societal norms and expectations, adopting an identity imposed by society.
“The They” (das Man) represents the collective existence of individuals who uncritically conform to societal norms rather than embracing their unique, authentic existence.
Heidegger explains:
"‘Das Man’ is always the ‘they’ of a particular group, society, people, period, public, humanity, and so on... It is the possibility of Dasein's not being itself, of its being disclosed in a way that is not its own."
This description closely mirrors the workings of modern ideologies, which are often tied to specific social groups, cultures, or movements. Ideologies shape perceptions, reinforce shared expectations and norms, and offer a sense of belonging. As these norms are rarely challenged, they become internalized, limiting critical thought and providing a prepackaged worldview and moral compass.
Nietzsche’s Critique of Christianity as Ideology
Nietzsche recognized similar dynamics in Christianity, which he viewed as an ideology detrimental to human flourishing.
He criticized Christianity for its focus on otherworldly ideals, its emphasis on humility and suffering, and its rejection of this world and human instincts. Nietzsche remarked:
"Christianity is a system, a whole view of things thought out together. By breaking one main concept out of it—the faith in God—one breaks the whole: nothing necessary remains in one's hands."
Nietzsche viewed Christianity as a system of thought that constrained human life and culture by promoting self-denial and suppressing instincts. He argued that all successful ideologies, like Christianity, achieve dominance through humility and self-denial, tools of power that oppress individuals and keep them subservient. In this sense, Nietzsche’s critique of Christianity aligns with a broader understanding of ideology as a set of beliefs, values, and principles that shape perceptions, restrict freedom, and serve as instruments of control.
The Ubiquity of Ideologies: Subtle and Pervasive
If we believe ideologies are distinct systems we must consciously enter, we are mistaken. Ideologies come in various shapes and sizes, often disguised as harmless solutions to our longing for meaning. Our desire to understand the world makes us susceptible to these frameworks.
This vulnerability is particularly evident in quick-fix solutions such as training programs promising transformation in days, systems offering instant meaning in life, or seemingly scientific therapies claiming to resolve profound issues in a single session.
The Allure and Limitations of Quick Solutions
Motivational group training, coaching, and brief therapy can sometimes provide genuine help. However, such approaches often come wrapped in "micro-ideologies" that frame life through a particular lens. These solutions use clever marketing strategies to first instill feelings of inadequacy, self-doubt, or low self-esteem. Then, they offer a conveniently packaged solution to "fix" these problems instantly.
If these solutions worked as promised, society would be dramatically different. Men would all have perfect physiques, financial independence, and profound self-awareness. Women would be perpetually young, balanced, and happy. Yet studies show this is rarely the case. Follow-ups on these programs often reveal limited long-term impact because:
Deep change is complex: Lasting behavioral or cognitive changes require sustained effort and cannot be achieved quickly.
High expectations lead to disappointment: Unrealistic promises often result in frustration and loss of motivation.
Lack of personalization: These solutions fail to address the unique circumstances and underlying issues individuals face.
Temporary fixes: While self-help and brief therapy may impart valuable skills, they often offer short-term relief rather than resolving deeper problems, which frequently resurface later.
As Žižek aptly notes, "We are not only witnessing the global spread of 'false happiness'—the growing pressure to experience everything as a satisfying spectacle—but also, more importantly, the brutal repression of the very possibility of true happiness." Similarly, Peterson reminds us: "Life is difficult. It is a great truth, one of the greatest truths. It is a great truth because once we truly see this truth, we transcend it."
The Trap of Ideologies and the and the Escape from Anxiety
The allure of ideologies lies in their promise to solve real problems while preventing us from addressing the root causes of those problems. This phenomenon is not new. If Freud were alive today, he might be astonished to see how his concept of the unconscious has been inverted: rather than seeking the unconscious roots of our issues, we actively project our problems outward, onto external frameworks.
At the heart of this is our desire to escape anxiety. Anxiety differs fundamentally from fear.
Fear is directed toward something specific, a tangible threat.
Anxiety is nebulous and undefined, arising when we cannot pinpoint the source of our discomfort.
In the face of anxiety, people often go to great lengths to escape its unsettling nature. Common strategies include:
Minimization: Labeling anxiety as mere stress or busyness.
Replacement problems: Redirecting energy into secondary pursuits, such as dieting, hobbies, or learning new skills.
Adopting frameworks: Seeking quick solutions through motivational programs, self-help, or coaching.
While these coping mechanisms may provide short-term relief, they risk becoming barriers to addressing deeper issues. Suppressing or rationalizing anxiety can prevent us from confronting its root cause, ultimately delaying meaningful resolution.
Two Steps Toward Authenticity
Perhaps the solution is two-fold:
Unmask Ideological Influence: Begin by recognizing and critically examining the ideological frameworks that shape our beliefs. Understanding how these systems influence us is the first step toward reclaiming our agency.
Face Anxiety Directly: Rather than avoiding or suppressing anxiety, confront it as a fundamental aspect of existence. Anxiety is not merely a problem to be fixed but a call to authenticity and self-awareness.
Rejection of External Beliefs
Nietzsche observes, "The slave does not rebel; he does not say 'no' to the master, he does not even say 'no' to himself."This reflects the tendency to passively accept external frameworks rather than critically evaluate them. To reclaim our autonomy, we must develop the courage to reject imposed beliefs and ideologies.
Žižek references Herman Melville’s Bartleby, the Scrivener and the protagonist’s refrain: "I would prefer not to."According to Žižek, this phrase is not an outright rejection of the social order but an assertion of autonomy within it. Adopting this mindset—politely and critically saying "no" to choices presented as freedom under the guise of control—can be a meaningful first step.
Ideologies are often meticulously constructed to appear as though we are in control. By recognizing this, we can begin to identify, question, and reject these frameworks. This rejection is not about nihilism but about reclaiming the responsibility for shaping our beliefs and embracing the anxiety that comes with it.
The Call to Face Anxiety
Throughout myths, stories, and philosophies, a recurring theme emerges: the hero’s journey begins with a call to face the monster in the dark. This quest is not about external conquests but about internal transformation. Anxiety, in this sense, is the call to face our mortality, confront our nothingness, and discover the true meaning of being.
Kierkegaard stated, "Anxiety is the beginning of conscience, the glow of the moral sense, the dawn of the spirit." Anxiety forces us to abandon superficial distractions and make profound decisions about our existence. It reveals the fragility of our temporality and compels us to confront the inevitability of death, a confrontation that fosters resilience and character.
Heidegger wrote, "Anxiety is the state of mind in which Dasein exposes itself to the 'nothing' and is disclosed to its ownmost potentiality-for-being." Anxiety, in this sense, is not a curse but a fundamental aspect of Dasein—human existence—that discloses our authentic potential.
Peterson often uses the metaphor of the "forest fire" to describe this process: "You have to go through it to get to the other side. It’s painful but also necessary." Facing the undefined fears within anxiety is an integral part of human growth, not something to be avoided.
The Question of Beliefs
One might ask: "If I reject ideologies and embrace anxiety, what beliefs should I adopt to live a meaningful life?" This, however, is the wrong question. To live authentically, we must stop outsourcing the responsibility for our belief systems to external authorities.
Belief formation is an intensely personal process, requiring introspection, struggle, and courage. As Nietzsche put it:
"You must be willing to burn yourself in your own flame; how could you rise anew if you have not first become ashes?"
This process begins with confusion, turmoil, and uncertainty, but through these challenges, we create our own values. Anxiety does not disappear—it is an intrinsic part of human existence—but facing it consistently allows us to shape a life worth living.
Additional reading
Faith: A Reflection Beyond Words
The question, “Do you believe in God?”, is one that resists a straightforward answer. It is not a question that can be resolved through dialectical reasoning or articulated meaningfully in words alone. In this short commentary, I aim to outline a fundamental realization that emerges for most who reflect deeply on faith within a monotheistic framework — faith in one God or Creator, as understood in the Christian context.
Let us begin with empirical observation. When people are asked, “Do you believe in God?”, their responses often reveal more about their superficial understanding than their actual convictions. Broadly speaking, responses fall into two categories: “I believe” or “I don’t believe.” Unfortunately, both answers are, in most cases, inadequate. Why?
If one approaches the existence of God through the lens of Newtonian physics — a worldview grounded in material observations — they might conceive of God as a phenomenon akin to a physical object, like a chair. In this view, belief in God becomes analogous to determining whether a chair exists in a room. A deeply atheistic perspective, rooted in a scientific understanding of the universe, might conclude, “The chair is not there,” denying the existence of God entirely. Such a person may rationalize the human experience solely through scientific principles, placing faith in the eventual advancement of science to explain phenomena like consciousness or the origin of life. Ironically, for this individual, science itself becomes a form of God, a belief system as strong as faith in God within a religious framework.
More intriguing, however, are affirmative responses to the question of belief in God. When someone asserts their faith in God, it often reflects a Newtonian conception of God — a distant, abstract force or set of laws governing the universe without personal or existential significance. In such cases, God is perceived as a metaphysical construct, a conceptual tool rather than a profound existential reality. This perspective often reveals itself as shallow, where one claims to believe in God while their actions and behavior diverge from biblical principles. Such a stance, I argue, is a testament to monumental naivety.
Faith as Action, Not Declaration
True faith cannot be encapsulated in words alone. Faith is revealed through actions, through a life lived in accordance with higher values and responsibilities. Genuine faith demands that one critically evaluate their deeds as if replaying a film of their life, comparing it against the biblical standards set by those who “walked with God.” These were men such as Enoch, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Joshua, Elijah, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Paul—figures whose lives reflected unwavering commitment to their faith and principles.
To answer the question, “Do I believe in God?”, one must first ask, “Am I living in a way comparable to these exemplars of faith?” I find this question deeply humbling. At best, I can strive toward actions that reflect even a fraction of their dedication, seeking to align my deeds with their example rather than merely professing belief.
When someone claims belief in God but their actions fail to reflect a comparable commitment to higher values, their faith is not genuine. It becomes a hollow declaration, misleading both themselves and others while trivializing the profound teachings of the Bible. Faith, therefore, cannot and must not be reduced to an intellectual position; it must manifest as a practical and ethical way of life, demonstrated through actions and, ultimately, a life well-lived.
Faith Beyond Words: A Call to Responsibility
If one does not fully understand what faith in action entails, their conception of God likely remains limited—reduced to an abstract, Newtonian idea. For faith to be meaningful, it must manifest as ongoing responsibility for one’s choices, values, and actions.
This principle applies not only to faith in God but to any values we claim to uphold. If someone professes to value honesty, family, or hard work but their actions do not align with these declarations, they are engaging in self-deception. For example, if someone asserts the importance of family but fails to act on this belief in a meaningful, committed way, their words amount to little more than an ironic misrepresentation of their values.
True faith is not an intellectual exercise or a verbal acknowledgment. It is a lifelong pursuit, demonstrated through consistent actions and an unwavering commitment to higher values. Faith is the humility to recognize our shortcomings while striving to align our lives with principles that transcend us. As the Bible teaches:
"Faith by itself, if it does not have works, is dead" (James 2:17).
Faith is not simply what we declare with our mouths but what we prove through our deeds and the life we live. Let this serve as a reminder to students: faith, in its truest form, is an unrelenting call to responsibility and authenticity.
